A Conceptual Exploration of Hamstring Muscle–Tendon Functioning during the Late-Swing Phase of Sprinting: The Importance of Evidence-Based Hamstring Training Frameworks

Abstract An eccentrically lengthening, energy-absorbing, brake-driven model of hamstring function during the late-swing phase of sprinting has been widely touted within the existing literature. In contrast, an isometrically contracting, spring-driven model of hamstring function has recently been proposed. This theory has gained substantial traction within the applied sporting world, influencing understandings of hamstring function while sprinting, as well as the development and adoption of certain types of hamstring-specific exercises. Across the animal kingdom, both spring- and motor-driven muscle–tendon unit (MTU) functioning are frequently observed, with both models of locomotive functioning commonly utilising some degree of active muscle lengthening to draw upon force enhancement mechanisms. However, a method to accurately assess hamstring muscle–tendon functioning when sprinting does not exist. Accordingly, the aims of this review article are three-fold: (1) to comprehensively explore current terminology, theories and models surrounding muscle–tendon functioning during locomotion, (2) to relate these models to potential hamstring function when sprinting by examining a variety of hamstring-specific research and (3) to highlight the importance of developing and utilising evidence-based frameworks to guide hamstring training in athletes required to sprint. Due to the intensity of movement, large musculotendinous stretches and high mechanical loads experienced in the hamstrings when sprinting, it is anticipated that the hamstring MTUs adopt a model of functioning that has some reliance upon active muscle lengthening and muscle actuators during this particular task. However, each individual hamstring MTU is expected to adopt various combinations of spring-, brake- and motor-driven functioning when sprinting, in accordance with their architectural arrangement and activation patterns. Muscle function is intricate and dependent upon complex interactions between musculoskeletal kinematics and kinetics, muscle activation patterns and the neuromechanical regulation of tensions and stiffness, and loads applied by the environment, among other important variables. Accordingly, hamstring function when sprinting is anticipated to be unique to this particular activity. It is therefore proposed that the adoption of hamstring-specific exercises should not be founded on unvalidated claims of replicating hamstring function when sprinting, as has been suggested in the literature. Adaptive benefits may potentially be derived from a range of hamstring-specific exercises that vary in the stimuli they provide. Therefore, a more rigorous approach is to select hamstring-specific exercises based on thoroughly constructed evidence-based frameworks surrounding the specific stimulus provided by the exercise, the accompanying adaptations elicited by the exercise, and the effects of these adaptations on hamstring functioning and injury risk mitigation when sprinting.