Nanomaterials at the forefront: classification, fabrication technique, and cross-sector applications

Abstract Nanotechnology has revolutionized material science by enabling the manipulation of matter at the atomic and molecular scale. This review presents an in-depth analysis of nanoparticles (NPs), highlighting their classification into carbon-based, lipid-based, polymeric, metal, semiconductor, and ceramic types. It explores the physical and chemical uniqueness of nanomaterials, such as high surface-area-to-volume ratios and quantum effects, which empower their enhanced performance across domains. Emphasis is placed on synthesis strategies, including both top-down and bottom-up approaches, with a special focus on green and sustainable methods utilizing plant extracts and biological organisms. Furthermore, this review discusses wide-ranging applications of NPs in environmental remediation, medicine, electronics, mechanical systems, and energy harvesting. The potential of nanoparticles to offer targeted drug delivery, water purification, lightweight electronics, and energy-efficient systems makes them vital for future innovations. Challenges and perspectives on the scalability and safe deployment of nanomaterials are also briefly addressed.