The human skin virome: Ecological dynamics, aberrant profiles, and therapeutic opportunities

Human skin harbors a complex microbial ecosystem in which viruses, including eukaryotic viruses, bacteriophages, and endogenous retroviruses, are integral yet comparatively understudied. Shaped by host physiology, genetics, and environmental exposures across the lifespan, the cutaneous virome interacts closely with resident bacteria, fungi, and immune cells. In this review, we synthesize current knowledge of virome composition, biogeography, and dynamics, with an emphasis on how bacteriophages influence bacterial ecology, gene flow, and antimicrobial resistance on the skin. We further discuss how human-tropic viruses engage innate and adaptive immunity to support homeostasis while also contributing to inflammatory, infectious, and neoplastic skin diseases. Finally, we highlight methodological advances and persisting technical challenges in virome detection and functional annotation, and we outline emerging translational opportunities, including bacteriophage-based therapeutics, microbiome-targeted interventions, and immunomodulatory strategies.