Pathogen contamination of groundwater systems and health risks

Groundwater has been a relatively safe water source and associated with a series of global pressing issues. It can, however, be vulnerable to pathogen contamination and exhibit risks to public health. While groundwater has often been considered a relatively closed ecosystem, it is important to understand the transport of pathogens into and within groundwater and groundwater-dependent ecosystems in the context of their physiological characteristics, soil/sediment texture, hydrogeological and climatic conditions. The rapid progress in monitoring and modeling tools in recent years has facilitated the detection of pathogens and the prediction of their migration in groundwater, which aids the surveillance and remediation of health-related risks. This review aims to provide an updated understanding about groundwater pathogens, their impacts on human health, surveillance, risk assessment, and remediation strategies in the context of the global environment and climate changes. The challenges and perspectives in protecting groundwater biosafety are also discussed.