Powering the future: A comprehensive review on calcium-ion batteries

Due to concerns regarding the future availability, cost, and safety of lithium in Li-ion batteries (LIBs), researchers are exploring alternative chemistries such as Na-ion, Li-S, Li-air, and multivalent ion technologies. Multivalent ion technologies, which utilize divalent or trivalent ions, like Mg2+, Ca2+, and Al3+, show promise in achieving greater energy densities than LIBs due to their ability to deposit uniformly on anodes and intercalate into cathodes. While magnesium-ion batteries (MIBs) have been the primary area of research for multivalent ion batteries, the cost-effectiveness and abundance of calcium have sparked a growing interest in calcium-ion batteries (CIBs) in recent years. Compared to LIBs, CIBs have the potential to provide longer cycle life, enhanced safety, and increased energy densities. However, the development of CIBs comes with several challenges, such as finding suitable electrode and electrolyte materials that ensure the stability and safety of the battery. The primary hurdle in CIBs lies in the plating/stripping process. There is a significant hindrance preventing the occurrence of plating/stripping in CIBs, which lies in the formation of a passive layer resulting from the decomposition of the electrolyte. The objective of this article is to examine the advancements made in CIBs. Additionally, it aims to comprehensively assess the mechanisms and materials employed in various battery components, as well as the obstacles encountered in CIBs. This includes recent advancements in electrode materials, electrolytes, cell configurations, and the challenges and opportunities for enhancing the performance and commercial viability of CIBs.