Interdental and subgingival microbiota may affect the tongue microbial ecology and oral malodour in health, gingivitis and periodontitis

Abstract Background and Objective Oral malodour is often observed in gingivitis and chronic periodontitis patients, and the tongue microbiota is thought to play a major role in malodorous gas production, including volatile sulphur compounds (VSCs) such as hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S) and methanethiol (CH 3 SH). This study aimed to examine the link between the presence of VSCs in mouth air (as a marker of oral malodour) and the oral bacterial ecology in the tongue and periodontal niches of healthy, gingivitis and periodontitis patients. Methods Participants were clinically assessed using plaque index, bleeding on probing (BOP) and periodontal probing depths, and VSC concentrations in their oral cavity measured using a portable gas chromatograph. Tongue scrapings, subgingival and interdental plaque were collected from healthy individuals ( n = 22), and those with gingivitis ( n = 14) or chronic periodontitis ( n = 15). The bacterial 16S rRNA gene region V3‐V4 in these samples was sequenced, and the sequences were analysed using the minimum entropy decomposition pipeline. Results Elevated VSC concentrations and CH 3 SH:H 2 S were observed in periodontitis compared with health. Significant ecological differences were observed in the tongue microbiota of healthy subjects with high plaque scores compared to low plaque scores, suggesting a possible connection between the microbiota of the tongue and the periodontium and that key dysbiotic changes may be initiated in the clinically healthy individuals who have higher dental plaque accumulation. Greater subgingival bacterial diversity was positively associated with H 2 S in mouth air. Periodontopathic bacteria known to be prolific VSC producers increased in abundance on the tongue associated with increased bleeding on probing (BOP) and total percentage of periodontal pockets >6 mm, supporting the suggestion that the tongue may become a reservoir for periodontopathogens. Conclusion This study highlights the importance of the periodontal microbiota in malodour and has detected dysbiotic changes in the tongue microbiota in periodontitis.