Excess boron stress and alleviation of its toxicity in plants: mechanisms and strategies

Boron (B) is a fundamental micro-nutrient for plants, while deficiency or excess manipulates growth and leads to quality and yield losses. Excess boron (EB) is more difficult to manage in plants compared to deficiency, where it is irreversible. Several strategies have been developed to mitigate EB stress in plants. This review article abstracts the presence of B, its absorption and transport by plants, functions in plant life, its toxicity, physiological responses to it, recent developments in its toxicity alleviation, and provides recommendations for future studies.