Exploring a sustainable rice-cropping system to balance grain yield, environmental footprint and economic benefits in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River in China

Environmental degradation and resource scarcity are serious challenges faced by global rice production. Although rice production is crucial to ensure global food security, it is also one of the principal sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) and reactive nitrogen (Nr) emissions. Exploring rice-cropping systems with a low environmental footprint and high grain yield and economic benefits is a crucial strategy to improve the sustainability of rice production. Here, life cycle assessment was used to compare the performance of middle-season rice (MR), double-season rice (DR) and ratoon rice systems (RR) based on farmer-reported data in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River of China. The average annual grain yields of DR, MR, and RR were 13.68, 8.96 and 11.97 t ha−1, respectively. Although RR produced 12.5% lower grain yield, it had 41.2% lower global warming potential (GWP) and 33.8% smaller eutrophication potential (EP) than DR, which resulted in lower greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI) and reactive nitrogen intensity (NrI). The lower GWP and EP in RR were mainly attributed to lower agricultural inputs, smaller CH4 and N2O emissions and less Nr losses. Compared with MR, RR had higher GWP and EP, but significantly higher grain yield (33.6%) in RR contributed to lower GHGI and similar NrI. In all three cropping systems, CH4 emissions and NH3 volatilization had the highest contributions to GWP and EP, respectively. Compared with the other two cropping systems, RR exhibited the highest net economic income (NEI), benefit-cost ratio and eco-efficiency. Overall, our results suggested that RR is a sustainable rice-cropping system that can coordinate grain yield, environmental footprint and economic benefits.