Uncovering microbial interactions in a persistent Planktothrix bloom: Towards early biomarker identification in hypereutrophic lakes

Cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms pose significant threats to global water supplies, ecosystems, and economies. Among the harmful cyanobacteria, Planktothrix, a resilient and toxin-producing filamentous cyanobacterium, has garnered increasing attention. However, an understanding of the entire microbiome, particularly the phycosphere surrounding Planktothrix blooms, remains largely unexplored. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive study combining 16S rDNA and fungal internal transcribed spacer amplicon sequencing and shotgun metagenomics to elucidate Planktothrix bloom microbiomes and identify potential microbial or functional biomarkers for CyanoHABs. Our observations revealed that a summer bloom in Grand Lake St. Marys was initiated with Dolichospermum and then shifted to Planktothrix dominance. This transition was associated with nitrogen metabolism genes, suggesting that nitrogen plays a key role in bloom persistence through interactions among nitrogen-fixing bacteria, ammonia-oxidizing archaea, anammox bacteria, and denitrifiers. Additionally, metagenomic data revealed a strong positive correlation of toxin concentration with carbohydrate-nitrogen-sulfur-fatty acid associated metabolic pathways and a strong negative correlation with pollutant degradation pathways. Intriguingly, diazotrophic methane-related microbes were detected, which opens discussion on potential symbiosis that couples nitrogen and carbon metabolism. Toxin-degrading bacteria, such as Polynucleobacter and Acidovorax, were positively correlated with fungi like Vishniacozyma, proposing their cooperative roles during bloom events. Notably, Rhodobacter, a photosynthetic purple non-sulfur bacterium, showed strong negative correlations with both Planktothrix and the toxin-producing gene mcyE, positioning it as a promising biomarker for early bloom detection. Overall, this study advances the understanding of Planktothrix-dominated bloom ecology and highlights microbial signatures for proactive CyanoHAB management in freshwater systems.