Utilizing network optimization to mitigate rising greenspace exposure inequalities in Chinese cities from 2000 to 2050

Urban greenspaces enhance human well-being and promote sustainable development in rapidly urbanizing regions by delivering vital ecosystem services, including cooling, air purification, and recreation. In China, where cities accommodate a large share of the population amid persistent environmental pressures, disparities in greenspace exposure pose a major obstacle to equitable access; these disparities arise from geographic, climatic, socioeconomic, and landscape factors. Although awareness of such inequalities is growing, their long-term trajectories, demographic and city-scale patterns, and viable spatial optimization approaches remain largely unexplored. Here we show that greenspace exposure inequality across 246 Chinese cities increased by 25% from 2000 to 2020 and is projected to rise further by 12.2–15.7% by 2050 under middle-of-the-road and fossil-fuelled development scenarios, disproportionately affecting older, less-educated women and megacity residents. Geodetector and random forest analyses reveal that this rise results from interactions among greenspace coverage, population density, and patch connectivity, which explain 83.9% of the inequality. A network-based optimization approach that improves patch connectivity—without expanding total greenspace—can reduce disparities by 10.3–20.8%, with greater efficacy in high-inequality cities and among vulnerable populations. Our results highlight how precise landscape interventions can advance social equity in greenspace access, supporting Sustainable Development Goal 11 for inclusive, resilient urban environments. • Greenspace exposure inequality in 246 Chinese cities rose 25% from 2000–2020 and may intensify 12.2–15.7% by 2050 • Disparities are greatest among older, less-educated women and megacity residents • Greenspace coverage, population density, and patch connectivity interactively explain 83.9% of exposure inequality • Enhancing network connectivity mitigates inequality by 10–21%, especially in high-inequality cities and vulnerable groups • Targeted spatial optimization strategies are essential for equitable greenspace planning across diverse urbanization stages