Impact of nanoparticles and nanoplastics on female reproductive health

Nanomaterials including nanoparticles and nanoplastics are deposited in the environment, resulting in human exposure to nanoparticles and nanoplastics through dermal, oral, and inhalation routes. After exposure, nanoparticles and nanoplastics are absorbed and distributed to many organs in wildlife, animal models, and humans. As a consequence, nanoparticles and nanoplastics have been found in several human tissues including the ovary and brain, raising concern regarding their potential effects on female reproduction. The physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles and nanoplastics influence their behavior and their toxicity. One of the main challenges in understanding the toxic effects of nanoparticle and nanoplastic exposure is identifying the underlying molecular pathways. This review integrates available data on the effects of nanoparticles and nanoplastics on female reproductive health. Specifically, this review describes recent published data on the effects of nanomaterials on the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, folliculogenesis, steroidogenesis, estrous cyclicity, placental function, embryo development, and fertility. This review also highlights the known mechanisms by which nanomaterials exert toxic effects in the female reproductive tract, and it emphasizes the gaps in the literature that need to be addressed to better understand the effects of nanoparticle and nanoplastic exposure on female reproduction and their underlying mechanisms of toxicity.