Nanoparticle-antibody conjugate-based immunoassays for detection of CKD-associated biomarkers

To date, immunoassays are utilized as a prominent analytical tool for many common diseases like chronic kidney disease (CKD) not only in early-stage diagnosis but also for monitoring of treatment efficacy. The successful application of immunoassays is critically governed by the generation of antibodies specific to the clinically relevant CKD-associated metabolites and biomarkers. This review outlines the merits and demerits of various biomarkers for the clinical diagnosis of CKD in the context of their clinical significance. The discussion is extended further to narrate various immunoassay types for the sensing of above-mentioned biomarkers along with their performance evaluation. This review is thus expected to offer valuable insights into the recent advances in nanomaterial-antibody conjugate-based immunoassays for the diagnosis of CKD-associated metabolites and biomarkers in various body fluids along with the discussions on the challenges in their commercial and mass scale adaptation.