Spray drying encapsulation of β-carotene with cellulose nanocrystals: Improved stability and controlled release under varying wall-material compositions and inlet temperatures

β-carotene is an essential dietary carotenoid with antioxidant and provitamin A activity, but its application in foods and supplements is hindered by rapid degradation under oxygen, heat, and light. Spray drying encapsulation is a promising technique for stabilizing β-carotene against degradation, yet conventional encapsulation materials often provide limited protection and poor release control. This study represents the first systematic application of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) structuring agents in spray-dried matrices in addition to a combination of wall materials such as trehalose, maltodextrin, milk protein isolate, and gum Arabic, to improve β-carotene encapsulation efficiency, stability, and targeted delivery. Compared to maltodextrin at equal solid concentration, trehalose reduced water activity and increased the glass transition temperatures. FTIR analysis suggestes extensive hydrogen bonding with the presence of CNC in formulations. Different inlet temperatures (173 °C and 140 °C) were compared, and the optimized formulation achieved an encapsulation efficiency of 69.41 % and an activity retention of 60.57 % after heating at 95 for 30 min. Furthermore, the in vitro release study showed that 98.85 % of encapsulated β-carotene was successfully released at simulated gastrointestinal conditions. These findings highlight the novelty and functional advantage of incorporating CNC , while highlighting CNC’s unique role as a structuring and stabilizing agent, enhancing thermal stability, and enabling controlled release of β-carotene. The system shows strong potential for industrial applications in fortified foods, particularly baked products, where pigment retention, heat resistance, and bioavailability are critical. • Higher inlet temperature increased yield (59.18%) and encapsulation efficiency (69.41%). • CNC improved the thermal stability of -carotene by an extra 14.95%. • Up to 98.85% of encapsulated β-carotene was released within 4 h under simulated GI conditions.