Recent advances in the synthesis of spherical and nanoMOF-derived multifunctional porous carbon for nanomedicine applications

Porous carbon materials have inspired much interest owing to their outstanding properties, functionality and potential applications in sensing, catalysis, nanomedicine, adsorption/separation, as well as energy storage and conversion. In the last twenty years, tireless efforts have been paid to the synthesis, structural regulation and application of porous carbon materials and their derivatives, with pore sizes ranging from nanoscale to microscale. In this review, we present the principal techniques for preparing porous carbon nanoparticles containing spherical porous carbon nanoparticles (SPCNs) and metal-organic framework (MOF) derived porous carbon, and the seminal biomedical applications of these products. First, we summarize the synthetic strategies, including (soft/hard) templating, self-assembly, the Stöber method and hydrothermal carbonization, with particular focus on the design and functionalization of spherical mesoporous carbon nanoparticles (MCNs) at the molecular level. Then the synthesis of MOF nanoparticles (nanoMOFs) via coordination modulation is considered, summarising how the tailored structures form and grow, and that the nanoMOFs are used as precursors or stencils for the preparation of porous carbons nanomaterials. Next, the key therapeutic applications of porous carbon materials in controlled drug delivery, bio-imaging and photo-thermal and multimodal therapies are overviewed. Eventually, we envision the current/future challenges and opportunities of these porous carbon nanoparticles in the field of nanomedicine.