Impact of temperature and state-of-charge on long-term storage degradation in lithium-ion batteries: an integrated P2D-based degradation analysis

/graphite lithium-ion batteries, emphasizing temperature and state-of-charge (SOC) impacts. Implemented in COMSOL Multiphysics, the P2D framework simulates solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) growth and electrolyte conductivity loss, driven by parasitic redox reactions at the electrode-electrolyte interface, modeled using Arrhenius and Tafel kinetics. Validated against experimental data across five temperature-SOC conditions, the P2D model achieves root mean square errors below 0.9. Results show synergistic degradation, with SEI thickness exceeding 300 nm and conductivity loss over 20% after 36 months at 55 °C and 90% SOC. Higher SOCs intensify SEI growth due to electrolyte instability at elevated anode potentials. This P2D-based, chemically grounded approach provides mechanistic insights into storage degradation, enabling optimized battery management and storage strategies to enhance lifespan and reliability for electric vehicles and grid applications.