From molecules to extended solids

Of the millions of different chemical systems discovered since chemistry began, many are solids at room temperature. From the early days these solids have been classified in the four families, molecular, ionic, covalent and metallic solids, based on the nature of the forces which bind the atoms. Molecular solids are composed of groups of covalently bound atoms, i.e., molecules, held by weak charge-polarization (van der Waals) forces. In ionic solids, electrostatic attraction is the primary force binding cations and anions. Bonding in covalent solids is similar to that within molecules but extends over the whole crystallite. Metallic solids also exhibit extended bonding but, in addition, possess weakly bound, highly delocalized electrons easily moved by applied fields. Of course, this classification is somewhat artificial and many solids exhibit complex bonding in which more than one type of bonding is displayed. Molecular clusters in the solid state are naturally described nowadays with molecular-orbital models. Intermolecular interactions are weak. Although this is not true for solids with extended bonding networks, the solid-state machinery we developed in Chapter 6 shows that MO ideas smoothly transfer to crystalline solids. Hence, we have an analogous language for treating these more complex structures. This is not a text of solid-state chemistry and the purpose of this chapter is to illustrate the use of the theoretical model of Chapter 6 with experimental examples. In doing so, we firmly establish the other foundation of our cluster bridge.