Learners' AI dependence and critical thinking: The psychological mechanism of fatigue and the social buffering role of AI literacy

With the growing integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in education, understanding its cognitive implications has become increasingly important. This study examines how university students' AI dependence influences their critical thinking, exploring cognitive fatigue as a mediating mechanism and information literacy as a moderating factor. Data were collected from 580 Chinese university students, and a moderated mediation model (PROCESS Model 8) was tested. Results indicated that greater AI dependence was associated with lower levels of critical thinking, with cognitive fatigue partially mediating this relationship. Information literacy buffered the negative impact of AI dependence on critical thinking but also amplified cognitive fatigue when AI reliance was high. These findings extend theories of cognitive offloading and automation bias by revealing the dual role of information literacy in AI-supported learning. Practical implications include the need for digital literacy programs and instructional designs that manage cognitive fatigue in AI-integrated education.