Using the SOLO taxonomy to analyse students’ conceptual understanding of friction force

Abstract Effective assessment plays a crucial role in improving the quality of learning by identifying learners’ mental schemata and misconceptions. This study examined twelfth-grade students’ conceptual understanding of friction force based on the structure of the observed learning outcome (SOLO) taxonomy and explored their common misconceptions. The research employed a descriptive survey design, and 216 students were selected through multistage cluster sampling. Data were collected using a nine-item open-response test aligned with the levels of the SOLO taxonomy. The content validity of the instrument was confirmed by subject-matter experts, and its reliability was established using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient ( α = 0.749). The findings showed that, on average, students produced responses at the unistructural (83%), multistructural (30%), and relational (3%) levels of the SOLO taxonomy, while no responses reached the extended abstract level. Based on the ceiling-performance measure (the highest level demonstrated by each student), 52% of students produced at least one response at the unistructural level, 40% at the multistructural level, and 8% at the relational level. According to the mastery measure (consistent performance across items), no student demonstrated mastery at the relational or extended abstract levels, whereas 41% of students remained at the prestructural level, 47% demonstrated mastery only at the unistructural level, and 12% attained mastery at the multistructural level. Common misconceptions were identified through qualitative analysis of students’ written responses, including misunderstandings regarding the direction and magnitude of friction force and confusion between static and kinetic friction.