State-of-the-art applications of fly ash from coal and biomass: A focus on zeolite synthesis processes and issues

Abstract Over the years, the production of waste ash from many sources (e.g. coal, biomass, industrial, animal, and municipal solid waste) and from conventional and renewable energy technologies has increased, generating environmental problems due to the increasing amount of material disposed of in landfills. Fly ash from coal and biomass represent the foremost waste products produced by fossil fuel combustion and alternative natural energy sources, respectively. These waste materials are most widely utilized in agricultural applications, soil stabilization, and the cement and concrete industries. Among the various methods proposed for the reuse of fly ash, conversion to zeolite offers the greatest benefits; the process diverts ash waste materials from disposal sites and transforms them into useful secondary products for applications ranging from environmental mitigation to catalysis. The vast amount of literature on fly ash application is the fruit of growing waste production and the consequent need to find innovative methods to reduce the amount of waste deposited in landfills. This article summarizes studies concerning both coal and biomass fly ash. The characterization and potential applications of these materials are analysed in detail through reference to the numerous studies published on fly ash worldwide over the last number of decades. A considerable number of experiments have been conducted using ash as a raw material for zeolite synthesis, and many others concern the utilization of the newly-formed mineral. This paper discusses the key factors affecting zeolite synthesis, primarily from coal fly ash; the drawbacks of each approach are also analysed.