A detailed survey of microbial fuel cells: Classifications, computational modeling, recent innovations, and emerging applications

Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) have gained increasing attention as sustainable bioelectrochemical systems capable of generating electricity from biodegradable organic matter while offering simultaneous environmental remediation. This review critically analyzes MFC technology across key dimensions: structural classifications, modeling frameworks, technological innovations, and emerging applications. Quantitative performance benchmarks are emphasized, including power densities ranging from 0.2 to 4.3 W/m 2 , Coulombic efficiencies up to 90 %, and internal resistances as low as 30 Ω in optimized stacked designs. A detailed assessment of electrode materials, microbial community dynamics, and mass transfer limitations is provided, with comparative tables and figures summarizing key data from over 120 peer-reviewed sources. Mathematical modeling approaches are systematically categorized, highlighting assumptions and validation methodologies used in simulating microbial growth, substrate utilization, and electrochemical performance. Furthermore, recent advances, such as genetic engineering of Geobacter sulfurreducens for enhanced electron transfer and the integration of AI-driven design optimization, are explored alongside critical technical challenges, including membrane fouling, internal resistance, and long-term operational stability. Finally, the paper presents a roadmap for future MFC deployment in sectors such as decentralized wastewater treatment, environmental sensing, and off-grid energy supply. This review provides an authoritative, data-driven resource for researchers and engineers aiming to scale and commercialize next-generation MFC technologies. • MFCs for sustainable energy and environmental solutions. • Applications: wastewater, bioremediation, remote power, biosensing, implants. • Advancements in electrodes, microbes, membranes, and conditions. • Challenges: scalability, cost, long-term stability. • Potential for a sustainable future.