An integrative review of Bisphenol A (BPA): mechanistic insights into exposure dynamics, multiorgan toxicity, and biomolecular pathways

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a highly consumed synthetic compound used in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins, with global production exceeding six billion pounds yearly. Alarmingly, BPA leaching into food, beverages, and the environment results in hazardous exposure to humans and wildlife. The current review provides a holistic assessment of BPA, focusing on the convergence of environmental exposure dynamics, molecular toxicity pathways, and their consequences for human health and regulatory policy. By synthesizing evidence from experimental, epidemiological, and environmental studies, the current approach examines how BPA interacts with major organ systems through receptor-mediated signaling, oxidative stress, and epigenetic modulation and how these processes may contribute to multisystem outcomes, such as endocrine, metabolic, neurological, and immune alterations. Particular focus is given to emerging studies on immunological effects and the pervasiveness of BPA in environmental matrices, supported by biomonitoring data. The increasing use of BPA analogues is also critically examined in the current review, which raises concerns regarding the structural similarities and the possibility of “regrettable substitution”. Although a considerable number of investigations indicate ties between exposure to BPA and negative health outcomes, inconsistent study designs and exposure contexts highlight the need for careful interpretation. By integrating mechanistic insights with real exposure patterns and changing regulatory stances that call for increased policy enforcement, the development of alternative materials, and ongoing biomonitoring, the current review aims to provide a more coherent framework for understanding BPA-related risks and to direct future research priorities and risk management strategies.