3D printing of nutritious dysphagia diet: Status and perspectives

Because of the increasing elderly swallowing difficulties, 3D printing of dysphagia diet with attractive appearance is becoming an emerging trend. However, the nutritional characteristics, pre- and post-treatment impacts, and evaluation system of 3D printed dysphagia diet have not received sufficient attention, despite their importance. This paper firstly compiled the current publications about 3D printed dysphagia diet from nutrition perspective: micronutrient-based dysphagia diet and macronutrient-based dysphagia diet. The pre-/post-processing methods and evaluation system for 3D printed dysphagia diet were then described. Finally, we envisioned a personalized diet recommendation system for 3D printing of dysphagia diet based on individual elderly needs. Currently, research on 3D printed dysphagia diet generally only focuses on micronutrients or macronutrients, without fully considering the comprehensive nutritional needs of individual dysphagia patient, which should be considered in future. Pre- and post-processing significantly affect nutrients and texture of 3D printed dysphagia diet. Long heating duration should be avoided to remain micronutrients activity like vitamins. The food with moist and creamy texture friendly to dysphagia patient needs considered when selecting suitable pre- or post-processing. The evaluation systems of dysphagia diet are quite limited, and their correlation with food oral process should be developed to assist future development of 3D printed dysphagia diet. Food researchers, clinical doctors and artificial intelligence workers should collaborate for future designing personalized 3D printed dysphagia diet. This study will provide new ideas for the development of 3D printing of dysphagia diets.