Physically programmed vegan leather emulating the mechanical and sensory characteristics of animal leather from once-discarded gluten

and comparable water resistance to animal leather. The protein-based structure replicates the frictional feel, pliability, and surface micro-texture of natural leather, providing a comparable aesthetic and tactile experience. This material is fully soil-degradable, has a reduced carbon footprint by up to 13-fold compared to animal leather, provides waterless dyeing, and is even edible by insects. Therefore, the vegan leather developed in this study offers a scalable and eco-friendly alternative to conventional leather.